Hair cortisol. T1 mother hair cortisol levels in prison were related to T2 hair cortisol levels before release, r(33) = 0.37, p < 0.05, and T2 hair cortisol levels before release were related to T3 hair cortisol levels after release, r(24) = 0.46, p < 0.05.

Parenting stress, emotion dysregulation, and depressive and mental health symptoms. To determine the stability of other aspects over time in regards to mother hair cortisol, associations in prison (T1 with T2) and after release (T2 with T3) were examined for other variables. T1 mother parenting stress in prison was significantly related to T2 parenting stress before release, r(47) = 0.73, p < 0.001, and T2 parenting stress before release was significantly related to T3 parenting stress after release, r(38) = 0.62, p < 0.001. T1 mother emotion dysregulation in prison was significantly related to T2 emotion dysregulation before release, r(47) = 0.69, p < 0.001, and T2 emotion dysregulation before release was significantly related to T3 emotion dysregulation after release, r(38) = 0.72, p < 0.001. T1 mother depressive and mental health symptoms in prison were significantly related to T2 symptoms before release, r(47) = 0.42, p < 0.01 and r(47) = 0.57, p < 0.001, respectively, and T2 symptoms before release were significantly related to T3 symptoms after release, r(38) = 0.51, p < 0.001 and r(38) = 0.36, p < 0.05, respectively.

Correlations were conducted to determine associations with mother hair cortisol, mother parenting stress and adjustment (emotion dysregulation, and depressive and mental health symptoms), and children’s adjustment (social skills, emotional dysregulation, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms) at each time point. As detailed in the correlation matrix in Table 4.2, mother parenting stress was significantly associated with mother hair cortisol at T1 and T2, and showed a trend association at the p < 0.10 level at T3. Mother emotion dysregulation was significantly associated with mother hair cortisol at T1 and associated at the p < 0.10 level at T2 and T3. Higher levels of mother parenting stress and mother emotion dysregulation were related to higher levels of hair cortisol. Mother depressive and mental health symptoms were not significantly associated with mother hair cortisol at T1, T2, or T3. Mother emotion dysregulation and mother depressive and mental health symptoms were significantly associated with each other at T1, T2, and T3. Mother parenting stress was also significantly associated with emotion dysregulation at T1, T2, and T3, depressive and mental health symptoms at T1 and T2, and associated with depressive symptoms at the p < 0.10 level at T3.

As shown in the correlation matrix in Table 4.3, at T1, mother parenting stress was significantly related to child difficulty regulating emotions, externalizing symptoms, and poor social skills. Mothers’ emotion dysregulation was significantly related to child difficulty regulating emotions, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and poor social skills. Mothers’ depressive symptoms were significantly related to child difficulty regulating emotions and internalizing symptoms. At T3, mothers’ higher hair cortisol was significantly related to child difficulty regulating emotions. Similar to T1, at T3, higher mother parenting stress was significantly related to child difficulty regulating emotions and internalizing symptoms and related to child externalizing and poor social skills at the p < 0.10 level. Also at T3, mothers’ greater emotion dysregulation was significantly related to child internalizing symptoms.

Correlations between mother-child contact (living with child full or part time before incarceration, frequency of in-person or telephone contact in past month or after release, length of time since last in-person visit, telephone call, or contact by letter, living with child full or part time after release) and mother hair cortisol, parenting stress, adjustment, and child adjustment were examined at each time point. In addition, correlations with time incarcerated were examined at each time point and correlations with recidivism as indicated by being detained in the 6 months after release. As detailed in the correlation matrix in Table 4.4, living with their child before incarceration was significantly associated with lower levels of hair cortisol at T1 in prison and living with their child after release was associated at the p < 0.10 level with lower levels of hair cortisol at T3. Follow up ANOVAs to examine mean level differences revealed that mothers who lived with their child before incarceration had significantly lower levels of hair cortisol at T1 in prison (M = 193.20, SD = 90.32) compared to mothers who did not live with their child (M = 323.52, SD = 134.72), F(1, 37) = 11.24, p < 0.01 (but not at T2 before release or T3 after release). However, mothers who lived with their child after incarceration did not have significantly lower levels of hair cortisol at T3 after release (M = 273.22, SD = 157.59) compared to mothers who did not live with their child (M = 358.85, SD = 162.53), F(1, 24) = 1.76, p = 0.20.