Contributions of the Psychosocial Sciences to Human Behavior
The psychosocial sciences integrate social sciences and psychology. Psychology is concerned with mental processes and behavior and can be broken down into several areas. Clinical psychology is concerned with the application of psychological principles to the prevention, treatment, and understanding of psychopathology. Educational psychology is concerned with the application of psychological theories to teaching. Sociology is the study of collective human behavior, including the developmental structure and interactions of their social institutions. Anthropology is the study of humans in relation to distribution, origin, classification, and relationship of races, physical characteristics, environmental relations, social relations, and culture. Ethology is the study of animal behavior and is often applied to human behavior. Epidemiology is the study of the incidence, prevalence, control, and distribution of disease within a particular population.
One of the major contributions to psychosocial sciences is the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a widely renowned child (or developmental) psychologist. He is best known for his work in the understanding of the way children think and acquire knowledge. Piaget is also recognized for his famous theory of the four stages of cognitive development.
Over time, many other professionals have made contributions to our understanding of human behavior. Two of the major theories that have stemmed from such contributions are learning theory and attachment theory. Learning theory developed from the work of such behavioral researchers as Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936), John B. Watson (1878–1958), and B.F. Skinner (1904–1990). Three different types of learning emerged: classic conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. Attachment theory originated in the work of John Bowlby (1907–1990) who pointed out that the mother–child attachment was an essential medium of human interaction that had important consequences for development and personality functioning. René Spitz (1887–1974) described anaclitic depression, or hosptialism, in which normal children who were separated for long periods from adequate caregiving failed to thrive and, therefore, became depressed and nonresponsive. Ethologists, such as Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989) and Harry Harlow (1905–1981), studied bonding and attachment behaviors in animals, and showed how studying animal behavior could help illuminate human behavior.
The questions and answers below will help students test their knowledge of the subjects highlighted.
Helpful Hints
The student should know the following terms, theoreticians, and concepts.
abstract thinking
acculturation
altruism
Aplysia
assimilation
attachment phases
attribution theory
aversive stimuli
behaviorism
biofeedback
biostatistics
cognitive dissonance
cognitive organization
cognitive triad
concrete operations
cross-cultural studies and syndromes
double-blind method
drift hypothesis
epigenesis
escape and avoidance conditioning
ethology
experimental neurosis
extinction
flooding and implosion
frustration–aggression hypothesis
imprinting
inductive reasoning
inhibition
learning theory
object permanence
operant and classical conditioning
positive and negative reinforcement
preattachment stage
preoperational stage
reciprocal determinism
reciprocal inhibition
respondent behavior
segregation hypothesis
sensory deprivation
separation anxiety
social learning
stranger anxiety
syllogistic reasoning
systematic desensitization
tension-reduction theory
token economy
trial-and-error learning
vulnerability theory
Questions
Directions
Each question or incomplete statement below is followed by five suggested responses or completions. Select the one that is best in each case.
3.1. The drift hypothesis states that
A. one’s experience as a member of a particular class leads to the development of individual differences in coping capacity
B. women are disadvantaged relative to men because their adult roles expose them to chronic stress
C. a mental illness results in a decline in one’s social clan
D. differential exposure to stress explains group differences in mental illness
E. ethnic minorities and immigrants appear to have more effective coping skills over nonminorities
View Answer
3.1. The answer is C
The drift hypothesis states that a mental illness results in a decline in one’s social clan. Most of the evidence for the drift hypothesis comes from studies of major mental illnesses, primarily schizophrenia. Those studies show that the early onset of a disorder can reduce one’s chances of socioeconomic achievement, a fact that seems true for people who become ill before establishing a career.
A large part of sociological research on psychopathology has focused on structural correlates of psychiatric illness such as social class, race, ethnicity, sex, and age. The associations between these variables and the prevalence of psychiatric disorders are substantial. The most obvious hypothesis to test in examining such associations is that differential exposure to stress explains group differences in mental illness. It is now clear that this hypothesis can be rejected. Although it is true that people in comparatively disadvantaged positions in society are exposed to more stress than their advantaged counterparts, differential exposure cannot totally explain their higher rates of anxiety, depression, and nonspecific distress in general population samples.
Studies have shown that a class-linked vulnerability to stress accounts for the major part of the association between social class and depression and between social class and nonspecific distress. Another explanation is that one’s experience as a member of a particular class leads to the development of more effective coping skills.
A related area of research concerns racial and ethnical differences in mental illness. One intriguing and still only partially understood pattern is that ethnic minority immigrants appear to have better coping skills over nonminorities that disappear among second-generation and later-generation minorities.
Another area of sociological interest concerns gender differences in anxiety and mood disorders. There are several lines of research to pursue gender differences in nonspecific distress and affective disorders. The dominant perspective in sociology since the 1980s holds that women are disadvantaged relative to men because their adult roles expose them to more chronic stress.
3.2. A young woman presents with a history of agoraphobia since adolescence. Her agoraphobia progressed over the subsequent decade until she was essentially housebound. She could only leave home accompanied by her mother or husband and, even in that circumstance, with considerable anxiety. Leaving home alone had, in the past, often precipitated a panic attack. She had been treated with various medications and with psychotherapy without significant improvement. She was admitted to a clinical research center as part of a study examining the use of social reinforcement in various phobic conditions. A therapist with whom she had developed a good relationship delivered reinforcement in the form of praise contingent on progress. In the baseline period, the patient was encouraged to walk as far away from the clinical research unit as she could. Reinforcement for staying outside the unit resulted in only a small increase in distance walked away from the unit. In the next phase, praise for progress was given on a shaping schedule. For example, if the patient had been reinforced at a criterion of 100-yards distance on one trial and walked 150 yards on the next trial, the criterion would become 125 yards. She would be praised on the next trial only if she walked 125 yards or more. In this phase, the distance walked began to increase. When reinforcement was stopped, distance walked increased dramatically and then decreased. Finally, when reinforcement was reintroduced, the patient was able to walk long distances away from the unit. This was then generalized to the patient’s home environment. (Courtesy of W. Stewart Agras, M.D., and G. Terence Wilson, Ph.D.)
The therapy used in the above case is an example of
A. Classic Conditioning
B. Operant Conditioning
C. Social Learning
D. Cognitive Learning
E. None of the above
View Answer
3.2. The answer is B
The therapy used in the above case is an example of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning, developed by B. F. Skinner, is a form of learning in which behavior frequency is altered through the application of positive and negative consequences. The therapist uses positive reinforcement (praise) to help the patient overcome her agoraphobia. Positive reinforcement is the process by which certain consequences of a response increase the probability that the response will recur. Classic conditioning is a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus when presented with an unconditioned stimulus. Unlike operant conditioning, where learning occurs as a consequence of action, in classic conditioning, the examiner reinforces behavior. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov developed classic conditioning through his famous experiment conditioning a dog to salivate in response to a ringing bell.
Social learning theory relies on role modeling, identification, and human interactions. A person can learn by imitating behavior of another person, but personal factors are involved. When a person dislikes the role model, imitative behavior is unlikely. Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social learning school. According to Bandura, behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism. Cognitive learning theories focus on the role of understanding: Cognition implies understanding the connection between cause and effect, between action and the consequences of action.
3.3. American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike described
A. drive reduction theory
B. behaviorism
C. trial-and-error learning
D. respondent behavior
E. operant behavior
View Answer
3.3. The answer is C
Operant conditioning is related to trial-and-error learning, as described by the American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949). In trial-and-error learning, a person or animal attempts to solve a problem by trying different actions until one proves successful. A freely moving organism behaves in a way that is instrumental in producing a reward. For example, a cat in the Thorndike puzzle box must learn to lift a latch to escape from the box. For this reason, operant conditioning is sometimes called instrumental conditioning. Thorndike’s law of effect states that certain responses are reinforced by reward, and the organism learns from these experiences.
One of the first theorists to explore the neuropsychological aspect of learning was Clark L. Hull (1884–1952), who developed a drive reduction theory of learning. Hull postulated that neurophysiological connections established in the central nervous system reduce the level of a drive (e.g., obtaining food reduces hunger). An external stimulus stimulates an efferent system and elicits a motor impulse. The critical connection is between the stimulus and the motor response, which is a neurophysiological reaction that leads to what Hull called a habit.
American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958), the father of behaviorism, used Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning to explain certain aspects of human behavior. In 1920, Watson described producing a phobia in an 11-month-old boy called Little Albert. At the same time that the boy was shown a white rat that he initially did not fear, he was exposed to a loud, frightening noise. After such pairings, Albert became fearful of the white rat, even when he heard no loud noise. Many theorists believe that this process accounts for the development of childhood phobias, which are considered learned responses based on classic conditioning.
B.F. Skinner described two types of behavior: respondent behavior, which results from known stimuli (e.g., the knee jerk reflex to patellar stimulation or the papillary constriction to light), and operant behavior, which is independent of a stimulus (e.g., the random movements of an infant).
3.4. Premack’s principle states that
A. people will attribute other people’s behavior to stabilize their own personality traits
B. high-frequency behaviors can be used to reinforce low-frequency behavior
C. a person can learn by imitating the behavior of another person
D. the more people feel capable of controlling a threatening event, the less anxious they will be
E. people will attribute their own behavior to situational causes
View Answer
3.4. The answer is B
A concept developed by David Premack states that a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a low-frequency behavior. In one experiment, Premack observed that children spent more time playing with a pinball machine than eating candy when both were freely available. When he made playing with the pinball machine contingent on eating a certain amount of candy, the children increased the amount of candy they ate. In a therapeutic application of this principle, patients with schizophrenia were observed to spend more time in a rehabilitation center sitting down doing nothing than they did working at a simple task. When being able to sit down for 5 minutes was made contingent on a certain amount of work, the work output was considerably increased, as was the skill acquisition. This principle is also known as Grandma’s rule (“If you eat your spinach, you can have dessert”).
The social learning theory relies on role modeling, identification, and human interactions. This theory states that a person can learn by imitating the behavior of another person, but personal factors are involved.
The attribution theory is a cognitive approach concerned with how a person perceives the causes of behavior. According to the attribution theory, people are likely to attribute their own behavior to situational causes but are likely to attribute other people’s behavior to their own stable internal personality traits.
The self-efficacy theory predicts that the more people feel capable of predicting and controlling threatening events, the less vulnerable they are to anxiety and stress disorders in response to traumatic experiences.
3.5. The catharsis hypothesis is the belief that
A. participation in activities such as kickboxing can reduce aggressive behavior
B. aggression may be due to a lack of basic social skills
C. punishment can be an effective deterrent to overt aggression
D. exposure to signs of pain or discomfort on the victim’s part inhibits further aggression
E. humorous materials can often reduce anger
View Answer
3.5. The answer is A
The catharsis hypothesis is the belief that participation in activities, such as running or kickboxing, allows people to vent their anger and hostility and, therefore, reduces aggressive behavior. Some people, however, may become more aggressive as a result of the expressive behaviors. Catharsis, therefore, may not be effective for long-term reduction of aggression.
Punishment is sometimes an effective deterrent to overt aggression. Research findings indicate that the frequency or intensity of aggressive behavior can be reduced by even mild forms of punishment, such as social disapproval. However, punishment does not always, or even usually, produce such effects. The recipients of punishment often interpret it as an attack against them. To that extent, aggressors may respond even more aggressively. Strong punishment is more likely to provoke desires for revenge or retribution than to instill lasting restraints against violence. For these reasons, certain punishments may backfire and actually encourage, rather than inhibit, the dangerous actions they are designed to prevent.
A major reason why many people become involved in repeated aggressive encounters is their lack of basic social skills. These people do not know how to communicate effectively and thus adopt an abrasive style of self-expression. Their social deficits seem to ensure that they experience repeated frustration and frequently anger those with whom they have direct contact. A technique for reducing the frequency of such behavior involves providing these people with the social skills that they lack. The results are encouraging and indicate that training in appropriate social skills can offer a promising approach to the reduction of human violence.
When aggressors attack other people in face-to-face confrontations, the aggressors may block out, ignore, or deny signs of pain and suffering on the part of their victims. In several experiments, exposure to signs of pain and discomfort on the victim’s part has inhibited further aggression. If aggressors are exposed to such feedback, they may feel empathy and subsequently reduce further aggression.
Informal observation indicates that anger can often be reduced through exposure to humorous material. Several types of humor, presented in various formats, can induce reactions or emotions incompatible with aggression among the persons who observe the humor.
3.6. Attribution theory states that
A. behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors
B. persons are likely to attribute their own behavior to situational causes
C. a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a low-frequency behavior
D. an organism changes its behavior to avoid a painful stimulus
E. an animal learns a response to get out of a place where it does not want to be
View Answer
3.6. The answer is B
According to attribution theory, persons are likely to attribute their own behavior to situational causes but are likely to attribute others’ behaviors to stable internal personality traits.
In psychiatry, attribution theory may help explain why some persons attribute a change in behavior to an external event (situation) or to a change in internal state (disposition or ability).
Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social learning school. According to Bandura, behavior results from the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism. People learn by observing others, intentionally or accidentally. This process is described as modeling or learning through imitation. A person’s choice of model is influenced by a variety of factors such as age, sex, status, and similarity.
The Premack’s principle is a concept developed by David Premack that states that a behavior engaged in with high frequency can be used to reinforce a low-frequency behavior. In one experiment, Premack observed that children spent more time playing with a pinball machine than eating candy when both were freely available. When he made playing with the pinball machine contingent on eating a certain amount of candy, the children increased the amount of candy they ate.
In adverse control or conditioning, an organism changes its behavior to avoid a painful, noxious, or aversive stimulus. Electric shocks are common aversive stimuli used in laboratory experiments. Any behavior that avoids an aversive stimulus is reinforced as a result.
Negative reinforcement is related to two types of learning, escape learning and avoidance learning. In escape learning, an animal learns a response to get out of a place where it does not want to be (e.g., an animal jumps off an electric grid whenever the grid is charged). Avoidance learning requires an additional response. The rat on the grid learns to avoid a shock if it quickly pushes a lever when a light signal goes on.
3.7. Which of the following chromosomal abnormalities has been implicated as having an influence on aggressive behavior?
A. 45-XO
B. 48-XXXY
C. 47-XXY
D. 47-XYY
E. 47-XXX
View Answer
3.7. The answer is D
Behavior research involving the influence of chromosomes on aggressive behavior has concentrated primarily on abnormalities in X and Y chromosomes, particularly the 47-XYY syndrome. Early studies indicate that people with the syndrome could be characterized as tall, with below-average intelligence, and likely to be apprehended and in prison for engaging in criminal behavior. Subsequent studies indicated, however, that, at most, the XYY syndrome contributes to aggressive behavior in only a small percentage of cases. Studies of the androgen and gonadotropin characteristics of persons with XYY syndrome have been inconclusive. However, none of the other listed chromosomal abnormalities have been associated with increases in aggressive behavior.
3.8. Which of the following statistical procedures is used to evaluate the frequency of events in a population?
A. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
B. T-test
C. Chi-squared test
D. Discriminant analysis
E. Z-score
View Answer
3.8. The answer is C
The chi-square test is used to evaluate the relative frequency or proportion of events in a population that falls into well-defined categories. Research on whether parents who were abused as children are more likely to abuse their children could be tested using the chi-square test of association. A t-test is a statistical procedure designed to compare the means of two sets of observations. Analysis of variance, or ANOVA
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