Cardiovascular

Congestive cardiac failure

Acute myocardial infarction

Cardiomyopathy

Pericarditis

Pulmonary

Upper airway obstruction

Asthma

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Pleuritis

Pneumonia

Pulmonary embolism

Pneumothorax

Pleural effusion

Acute respiratory distress syndrome

Pulmonary fibrosis

Neurologic

Neuromuscular illness due to paralysis of respiratory muscles (e.g., myasthenia gravis, end-stage amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)

Metabolic

Metabolic acidosis

Obesity-hypoventilation syndrome

Psychiatric

Dystonia

Panic disorder

Psychogenic dyspnea^a

^a Typically female patients between 20 and 40 years old, with attacks at rest and usually produced by stressful situations.