7 Fevers and Infections in the Neuro-ICU
Abstract
Fever, both infectious and noninfectious, is a common occurrence in neurocritical care unit (neuro-ICU). This chapter will discuss key components in diagnosis and management of some of the most common infectious and noninfectious causes of fever in the neuro-ICU.
Keywords: meningitis, HIV, toxoplasmosis, fevers, infection and central fevers
7.1 Brain
7.1.1 Meningitis
Meningitis is inflammation of the leptomeninges which consist of three layers (dura, arachnoid, and pia mater) which surround the brain and spinal cord. There are various causes of meningitis (▶ Table 7.1).
Signs/Symptoms
Most patients present with one or more of the following symptoms:
• Headache
• Fever
• Stiff neck
• Nausea/Vomiting
• Rash (petechial or vesicular)
• Altered mental status
• Sensitivity to light or sound
• Physical examination findings of:
◦ Brudzinski’s sign—flexion of the knees and hips upon neck flexion
◦ Kernig’s sign—flexion of the knees and hips to 90 degrees, and then extension of knees causes pain and resistance
Risk Factors
• Age
• Living conditions
• Medical conditions/diseases
• Exposure
• Travel
Workup
Laboratory Studies
• Complete blood count (CBC), chemistry, coagulation panel, blood cultures, and liver function
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Lyme, Lupus Ab, Purified protein derivative (PPD), Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) or Fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-ABS)
• Lumbar puncture (LP) sending cell count and culture can help to narrow the diagnosis (▶ Table 7.2). For patients on anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents other than aspirin, a hematology consultation can be considered prior to reversal recommendations. Do not delay antibiotics if the LP is delayed.
Imaging
Computed tomography (CT) scan of brain is not recommended routinely prior to the LP. According to the Infectious Disease Society of America, a CT scan should be performed prior to performing the LP when any of the following conditions apply (▶ Table 7.3).
7.1.2 Acute Bacterial Meningitis
Epidemiology
According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), bacterial meningitis affects 4,000 people every year worldwide. Common causative organisms include: Streptococcus pneumoniae (61%) and Neisseria meningitidis (16%). Group B streptococcus (14%), Haemophilus influenzae (7%), and Listeria monocytogenes (2%).
Diagnosis
All patients with suspicion of bacterial meningitis should get immediate blood cultures and LP (lumbar puncture) and antibiotics started without significant delay. ▶ Fig. 7.1 details the algorithm for suspected bacterial meningitis.
Table 7.3 Conditions when patients should obtain CT of head prior to performing lumbar puncture. (Adapted from Tunkel et al.3)
Conditions | Details |
Abnormal neurologic exam | Nonreactive pupils, arm/leg drift, gaze deviation, cranial nerve palsy, aphasia |
Altered mental status | Inability to follow commands or answer questions |
Papilledema | Presence of papilledema suggests increased ICP |
Seizure | Within 1 week |
Immunocompromised state | HIV/AIDS, cancer, any immunosuppressive therapy, post-transplantation |
History of prior CNS disease | Mass lesion (tumor/abscess), large stroke, etc. |
Abbreviations: AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; CNS, central nervous system; CT, computed tomography; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; ICP, intracranial pressure. |
Fig. 7.1 Management algorithm for adults with suspected bacterial meningitis.3(Adapted from Tunkel A, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis.)
Treatment
Empiric antibiotics should be started as soon as possible. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are chosen initially based on risk factors or age (▶ Table 7.4). As specific pathogens are identified, the antibiotic of choice should be narrowed. Dexamethasone (10 mg IV every 6 hours) should be started 10 to 20 minutes prior to first dose of antibiotics whenever pneumococcal meningitis is suspected.27 Steroids should be continued for 2 to 4 days when pneumococcal meningitis is confirmed. If LP results are not consistent with bacterial meningitis then steroids should be discontinued. Antibiotics can be continued until cultures are finalized.
7.1.3 Aseptic Meningitis
Meningitis with clinical symptoms but negative bacterial cultures is called aseptic meningitis. Some of the more common causes of aseptic meningitis include:
• Viruses: Enterovirus, HIV, herpes simplex virus (HSV), mumps, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), and adenovirus
• Fungal infections: Cryptococcal infection and coccidioidal infection
• Spirochetes: Lyme and syphilis
• Leptomeningeal neoplasm
• Drug-induced meningitis: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), antibiotics, and antiepileptic drugs
Diagnosis
LP should be done in all patients with suspected meningitis (▶ Fig. 7.1).
Treatment
All patients with suspected meningitis should be started on antibiotics until bacterial causes are ruled out.
7.1.4 Viral Meningitis
It is the most common form of meningitis but less severe than bacterial meningitis. Enteroviruses (coxsackievirus, echovirus, non-polio enteroviruses) which occur in the summer and fall are the most common cause of viral meningitis.
Treatment
Most cases are self-limited and resolve within 7 to 10 days. Generally, most patients can be managed with supportive treatment (antipyretics, IV fluids, pain medications, etc.). Antiviral treatment is required for some viruses such as HSV-2 and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) which are treated with acyclovir and HIV which is treated with anti-retrovirals.
Table 7.5 Common fungal infections and treatment
Fungi | Transmission | Treatment |
Cryptococcus | Soil Bird droppings Decaying wood | IV Amphotericin B + 5-Flucytosine x 2 weeks then oral fluconazole |
Coccidioides | Soil in the southwest United States, Central and South America | Oral fluconazole induction IV fluconazole with IT Amphotericin B for patients who fail oral therapy |
Histoplasma | Bird/bat droppings Central and Eastern USA | IV Amphotericin B with transition to oral itraconazole or fluconazole |
Aspergillosis | From sinusitis, IVDA | IV Voriconazole or Amphotericin B |
Blastomyces | Moist soil Decaying wood/leaves Midwest, Southcentral, and Southeast USA | IV Amphotericin B |
Candida | Colonized on body, hematogenous spread | Amphotericin B + 5-Flucytosine |
7.1.5 Fungal Meningitis
Although relatively rare in the United States, they can occur in patients who are immunocompromised. Risk factors include organ transplantation, chemotherapy, or chronic steroid use. They present in a subacute or chronic fashion. Fungal meningitis does not spread person to person but rather patients inhale the spores which then spread from the lungs to the brain or spinal cord. Special attention should be paid to patients who have recently moved and may have been exposed based on their prior geographic location. ▶ Table 7.5 notes some of the more common fungal infections according to the CDC.
7.1.6 Ventriculitis
Inflammation of ependymal lining of cerebral ventricles due to infection is called ventriculitis.
Etiology
• Causes include meningitis, cerebral abscess, trauma, external ventricular drains, intraventricular shunts, and intrathecal chemotherapy31
• Common causative organisms include staphylococcus species, gram-positive skin flora, gram-negative rods, and S. pneumoniae
Incidence
Ventriculitis rates ranges from 0 to 45% in the setting of intraventricular catheter.25
Clinical Features
Fever, seizures, nuchal rigidity, new headache,1 photophobia, nausea, lethargy, altered mental status, erythema, and tenderness over the tubing in patients with ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS). Pleuritis in cases of ventriculopleural shunt infection, peritonitis, abdominal pain, abdominal fluid collections in cases of ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection,2,3 and blood stream infection and endocarditis in cases of ventriculoatrial shunt infection.
Diagnosis
• According to Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines1 diagnosis of a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drain infection
◦ Single or multiple positive CSF culture with pleocytosis, hypoglycorrhachia, and increasing cell count and clinical symptoms are ventriculitis and meningitis.
• However, abnormalities in CSF cell count and glucose/protein may not be reliable indicators of infection, and normal CSF does not exclude infection.
• If cultures are negative initially, they should be held for at least 10 days for slow growing organisms.
• If a CSF device (including shunt, intrathecal pump, deep brain stimulatory, vagal nerve stimulator or associated hardware) is infected then current recommendations are to remove the infected device. Any device/shunt that is removed should be sent for culture.
• In addition to CSF cultures, blood cultures should be obtained for any patient with a ventriculoatrial shunt and should be considered for patients with a ventriculoperitoneal or ventriculopleural shunt.
Imaging
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with gadolinium is recommended for anyone with suspected CSF device infection.
• CT of head with contrast can be considered an alternative if MRI is unavailable or contraindicated.
• Abdominal imaging with CT of chest/abdomen or ultrasound of the abdomen should be completed in patients with peritoneal or pleural shunts and abdominal or pleuritic chest pain.
Table 7.6 Empiric antibiotic coverage in patients with suspected healthcare-associated ventriculitis/meningitis
No beta-lactam allergy or carbapenem allergy | With serious beta-lactam or carbapenem allergy |
Vancomycin + antipseudomonal beta-lactam agent (cefepime, ceftazidime, or meropenem) | Vancomycin + Aztreonam or Ciprofloxacin |
Treatment
• Includes antibiotic therapy and removal of infected shunt or device (▶ Table 7.6).
• Once a specific pathogen is identified, antibiotics should be narrowed (▶ Table 7.7).
• Duration of antibiotic is between 10 and 14 days depending on the pathogen, can extend to 21 days for some gram-negative bacilli. Duration should be determined after the last positive CSF culture.
7.1.7 HIV-Related Infections
Cerebral Toxoplasmosis
Central nervous system (CNS) opportunistic infections caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.4

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