Antecedent-based interventions are those that are put into place prior to the occurrence of a behavior to increase the likelihood of success and/or to reduce the occurrence of problem behavior. There are multiple interventions in this category, including incorporating students’ special interests into activities and priming. These are not discussed below.

Special interests have been broadly used with students with ASD to increase social interactions, decrease behavior problems, and increase task performance (Vismara and Lyons 2007). Winter-Messiers (2007), evaluating the impact of special interest areas on individuals on the spectrum, found strong positive relationships between special interests and improvements in social, emotional expression, sensory-motor, and executive function.

Wilde et al. (1992) introduced priming for learners with ASD. The purposes of priming are to (a) familiarize the student with schedules, activities, and/or materials before their use and (b) introduce predictability into the information or activity in an attempt to reduce anxiety and behavioral challenges while increasing student success (Koegel et al. 2003). Priming can take place in the classroom or at home; however, it is most effective when built into the learner’s routine (Schreibman et al. 2000). Priming typically involves showing the actual materials that will be used in a lesson the day or morning before the lesson. In some cases, priming may occur right before the activity, such as when a peer mentor overviews what will occur during the science experiment just prior to the beginning of the science class (Wilde et al. 1992).

Skinner introduced modern behaviorism in the early 1900s to address issues of behavior. Behavioral interventions are systematically applied interventions based on an analysis of antecedents (events prior to a behavior) and consequences (events occurring after a behavior). The purpose of these interventions is to improve socially significant behaviors, including reading, academics, social skills, communication, and adaptive living skills, to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate that the interventions are responsible for the improvement in behavior (Baer et al. 1968). Behavioral interventions include, but are not limited to, prompting, fading, shaping, chaining, reinforcement, differential reinforcement, response interruption and redirection, and contingency contracting. It is not uncommon that these interventions are used in tandem with one another (Troutman and Alberto 2009).

Modeling involves learning skills through either real time (in vivo) or video observations (Stahmer et al. 2010). Based on Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory that posits that individuals learn from watching each other, different types of modeling exist, including “direct modeling (simply copying the model), synthesized modeling (combining several observations to create a new behavior), and symbolic modeling (copying fictional characters from television, books, etc.)” (Aspy and Grossman 2012, p. 205).

A more recent form of modeling is video modeling. Several types of video modeling exist: (a) self as model, (b) adult as model, and (b) visual point of view. The latter is structured such that the learner observes the target behavior as if she were engaged in it. A meta-analysis found that video modeling was successful in teaching a variety of skills, including self-help, social, transition behaviors, play, on-task, and speech and language skills (Bellini and Akullian 2007). A recent review indicated that all types of video modeling resulted in successful acquisition of skills (McCoy and Hermansen 2007).

Multicomponent interventions involve a combination of supports and strategies that can be based on one or more theoretical orientations. These include (a) naturalistic teaching strategies, (b) parent-implemented interventions, (c) peer-implemented interventions, and (d) pivotal response training (PRT). Comprehensive behavioral strategies, which can also be considered a multicomponent, are discussed under behavioral interventions.

The history of autism intervention contains multiple examples of parents as teachers for their children on the spectrum (Schopler and Reichler 1971). In fact, research has demonstrated repeatedly that parents can be effective instructional agents for their children (Meadan et al. 2009), highlighting the importance of home-based programs. Caregivers have taught their children (a) communication (Green et al. 2010), (b) joint attention (Jones et al. 2006), (c) social (Laugesen et al. 2008), (d) academic and preacademic (Rogers et al. 2006), (e) developmental (Ingersoll and Gergans 2007), and (f) environmental (Kashinath et al. 2006) skills.

Picture exchange communication system (PECS) is a behavior-based augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) program that has been used to increase the communication skills of learners with ASD (Tien 2008). PECS requires learners to exchange a picture symbol(s) to communicate with others. Training includes six phases: (a) teaching the exchange of a picture symbol, (b) expanding spontaneity of the exchange and increasing the distance between the learner and his communicative partner and (c) discriminating between picture symbols, (d) making or using sentences, (e) responding to questions, and (f) commenting. PECS training begins with a reinforcer assessment that serves as the foundation for communication. Two instructors are involved in the process: one is the learner’s communicative partner; the other prompts the learner. Physical prompts are used and are faded as quickly as possible (Bondy and Frost 1994).

Self-management procedures are designed to teach learners to self-initiate, select reinforcers, monitor performance, evaluate performance, and deliver reinforcers (Aspy and Grossman 2012). Many components have become a part of the self-management process: peer training, contingency contracts, token economy, pictures, and video (Southall and Gast 2011). Designed to teach choice making and self-advocacy (Paradiz 2008), self-management encourages independence. It also addresses a common concern experienced by individuals with ASD—generalization (Deitchman et al. 2010). These procedures have been used to address (a) time on task (Agran et al. 2005), (b) appropriate behavior (Mruzek et al. 2007), (c) task completion (Ganz and Sigafoos 2005), (d) communication (Delano 2007), and (e) social skills (Palmen et al. 2008). A review of studies on self-management revealed that these procedures have been successful regardless of components, learner’s age, and learner’s cognitive level (Southall and Gast 2011).

Interventions that target social skills in a group or individual format have been shown to positively impact the functioning of learners on the spectrum. Social interventions have included the use of social narratives, peers, technology, naturalistic procedures, video modeling, reinforcement, self-management, PRT, and incidental teaching (see discussion of each in this chapter). From an analysis of the research on social skills, White et al. (2007) identified strategies that appear promising for learners on the spectrum. These are included in Table 15.2. According to Koenig et al. (2009), “ … the most successful [social skills group] interventions used multiple training sessions, modeling, and naturally occurring and direct reinforcement” (p. 1165). Manualization, a quality indicator in social skills and other intervention research (Smith et al. 2007), is becoming increasingly apparent. Two types appear in the social skills research: treatment manuals developed specifically for individuals on the spectrum (Koenig et al. 2009; White et al. 2007) and those adapted for use with other populations (Webb et al. 2004).

Social narratives provide learners with information about social situations, such as what may occur or what to expect, when something may occur, what the learner can do in a given situation, what the learner should try not to do in a given situation, and so forth. Typically they (a) are written in the first person; (b) provide for flexibility and the possibility of change using words such as may, probably, usually, will try to, and might; and (c) are developed and presented in a manner appropriate to the learner, whether through the use of words only, pictures only, or a combination of the two. Comic Strip Conversations™ (Gray 1994), Power Cards (Gagnon 2001), social autopsies (LaVoie 1994), social scripts (Wichnick et al. 2010), Social Stories™ (Gray 1995), and social scripts (Wichnick et al. 2010) are all social narratives. Table 15.3 describes these social narratives.