Gastrointestinal

Obstruction/pseudo—obstruction Inflammation/infection—appendicitis, peritonitis, pancreatitis, acute cholecystitis, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis (Staphylococcus aureas, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfingens), ingested poisons or toxins

Gastroparesis (functional gastric outlet obstruction)

Small intestinal dysmotility

Cardiovascular

Congestive heart failure

Acute myocardial infarction

Metabolic/endocrine

Diabetic ketoacidosis

Addison disease

Hypo/hyperthyroidism

Pregnancy

Hepatic disease

Hypercalcemia

Central nervous system

Head injury

Meningitis

Headache

Vestibular disorder (e.g., Ménière disease, tumor)

Renal

Nephrolithiasis

End stage renal disease

Medications

Lithium

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Valproic acid

Venlafaxine

Anticholinergic agents

Nefazodone

Narcotics

Digitalis

Digoxin

Oral contraceptive agents

Psychiatric

Anorexia

Bulimia nervosa

Depressive disorders

Anxiety disorders

Irritable bowel syndrome

Somatoform disorders (e.g., somatization, factitious disorders, malingering)