Psychology: an introduction

CHAPTER 1 Psychology


an introduction



Patricia Barkway



Key points


♦ Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour – particularly, but not exclusively, the study of human behaviour.

♦ Psychological theories offer competing and, at times, complementary explanations for human behaviour.

♦ Psychological theories are more effective in explaining specific behaviours in specific circumstances but have limitations regarding global explanation for human behaviour.

♦ Psychological theory underpins therapeutic interventions in healthcare practice.

♦ Often human behaviour can be best understood by utilising an eclectic/holistic approach, that is, by taking into consideration biomedical, psychological and sociological factors (a biopsychosocial approach).


Learning objectives


The material in this chapter will help you to:


♦ understand the psychological theories that provide explanations of human behaviour and personality

♦ describe and critique biomedical, psychological and sociological theories of human behaviour

♦ apply your knowledge of psychological theory to understand the behaviour of yourself and others

♦ describe how psychological theory informs interventions in healthcare practice

♦ explain the nature versus nurture debate

♦ understand the interrelationship between psychological, biological and social influences on human behaviour.


Key terms


♦ Psychological theories


♦ Psychoanalytic theory


♦ Behaviourism (learning)


♦ Cognitivism


♦ Cognitive behaviourism


♦ Humanism


♦ Biomedical theory


♦ Sociological theory


♦ Eclectic/holistic approach


♦ Nature versus nurture



Introduction


Who are you? How have you come to be who you are? What influences how you think, feel and act? Are your personality and behaviour determined by your genetic make-up and biological events, by thoughts and feelings, by your experiences in the world or by an interrelationship between some or all of these? Most of us, at one time or another, have pondered these questions. Through attempting to understand why humans behave as they do, a further question arises: Are human behaviour and personality determined by genetics and biology (nature) or shaped by one’s upbringing, experiences and environmental factors (nurture)?


These questions have long engaged the interest and passion of philosophers, healers and health professionals and, in more recent times, psychologists and scientists. Investigation of these questions has resulted in various theories being proposed to explain normal and abnormal thoughts, feelings and behaviours and mental health and mental illness. These concepts – the theories that attempt to explain and provide understandings of behaviour – will be examined in this chapter. The nature versus nurture debate will also be explored.



Psychology


Psychology is a theoretical and applied discipline that emerged in the 19th century in Europe and North America from the established disciplines of physiology and philosophy. Its principal focus is the scientific study of behaviour. To achieve this psychologists study how organisms (primarily humans but not exclusively) act, think, learn, perceive, feel, interact with others and understand themselves. Nevertheless, given that psychological theory originated in a Western context, caution is recommended when applying psychological theory to people from other cultures such as New Zealand Māori or Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.


The discipline of psychology focuses on behavioural responses (including affective and cognitive) to certain sets of conditions. Psychology is both a natural and a social science that attempts to determine the laws of nature at a cellular level as in bioscientific enquiry and also to explain human behaviour in individuals and groups. Within the discipline professional psychologists practise in two broad areas: theoretical (research/academic) and applied (clinical practice/organisational psychology).


The major theoretical perspectives (also called paradigms) that attempt to explain and predict specific behaviours include psychoanalytic, behavioural (learning), cognitive and humanistic. At times these theories can be complementary but at other times they can be contradictory. Finally, other theoretical perspectives that are outside the field of psychology are recognised for the role they play in influencing behaviour. These paradigms include the biomedical model and sociological theories.



Theories of personality and human behaviour


Personality theories propose psychological models to explain human behaviours. They emerged from curiosity about and philosophical enquiry into the human condition. The theories also place particular emphasis on identifying the causes of abnormal behaviour so as to develop models for understanding prevention or treatment of health problems with a behavioural or lifestyle component such as physical activity or tobacco smoking. Explanations of human behaviour can be broadly divided into three paradigms:


• biomedical or biological/physical models

• psychological models, including psychoanalytic, behavioural, cognitive and humanistic approaches

• sociological models.

Within these paradigms are a number of major viewpoints that offer a theory of personality development or an explanation of human behaviour. These are:


• Biomedical model – proposes that behaviour is influenced by physiology, with normal behaviour occurring when the body is in a state of equilibrium and abnormal behaviour being a consequence of physical pathology.

• Psychoanalytic theory – asserts that behaviour is driven by unconscious processes and influenced by childhood/developmental conflicts that have either been resolved or remain unresolved.

• Behavioural psychology – presents the view that behaviour is influenced by factors external to the individual. Behaviours are learned depending on whether they are rewarded or not, by association with another event or by imitation.

• Cognitive psychology – acknowledges the role of perception and thoughts about oneself, one’s individual experience and the environment in influencing behaviour.

• Humanistic psychology – focuses on the development of a concept of self and the striving of the individual to achieve personal goals.

• Sociological theories – shifts the emphasis from the individual to the broader social forces that influence people. This model challenges the notion of individual pathology.

• Eclectic approach – (also called holistic) draws on the theory and research of several paradigms to obtain an overall understanding or provide a more comprehensive explanation than would be achieved by using one theoretical model alone. For example, in clinical practice cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a frequently used counselling approach and in research a mixed-methods approach may be utilised.

Each of these seemingly disparate perspectives makes a substantial contribution to the understanding of how and why humans think, feel and behave as they do and thereby identifies opportunities for prevention and treatment of health problems with a behavioural component. Nevertheless, as a comprehensive theory of human behaviour, each also has major shortcomings hence the practice of using an eclectic approach that utilises more than one theory.



Biomedical model


Also known as psychobiology or the neuroscience perspective, the biomedical model asserts that normal behaviour is a consequence of equilibrium within the body and that abnormal behaviour results from pathological bodily or brain function. This is not a new notion; in the fourth century BC the Greek physician Hippocrates attributed mental disorder to brain pathology. His ideas were overshadowed, however, when throughout the Dark Ages and later during the Renaissance, thinking and explanations shifted to witchcraft or demonic possession (Alloy et al 2005, Davison et al 2004). In the 19th century, a return to biophysical explanations accompanied the emergence of the public health movement.


In recent times, advances in technology have led to increased understanding of organic determinants of behaviour. Research and treatment have focused on four main areas:


• Nervous system disorders, in particular neurotransmitter disturbance at the synaptic gap between neurons – over 50 neurotransmitters have been identified, four of which are implicated in mental illness. These are acetylcholine (Alzheimer’s disease), dopamine (schizophrenia), norepinephrine (mood disorder) and serotonin (mood disorder).

• Structural changes to the brain – perhaps following trauma or in degenerative disorders such as Huntington’s disease.

• Endocrine or gland dysfunction, as in hypothyroidism – this has a similar presentation to clinical depression and hormonal changes are considered to be a contributing factor in postnatal depression.

• Familial (genetic) transmission of mental illness – twin studies reviewed by Gottesman found the following lifetime risks of developing schizophrenia: general population 1%, one parent 13%, sibling 9%, dizygotic (non-identical) twin 17%, two parents 46% and monozygotic (identical) twin 48% (Cando & Gottesman 2000, Alloy et al 2005).

Although genetic studies demonstrate a correlation between having a close relative with schizophrenia and the likelihood of developing the disorder, a shared genetic history alone is not sufficient. If genetics were the only aetiological factor, the concordance rate for monozygotic twins could be expected to be 100%. Gottesman’s research is important because it supports the diathesis-stress hypothesis, a widely held explanation for the development of mental disorder that proposes that constitutional predisposition combined with environmental stress will lead to mental illness (Alloy et al 2005).



CRITIQUE OF THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL


Among treatments that emerge from the biomedical model are medications that alter the function, production and reabsorbtion of neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap. However, evidence that a particular intervention is an effective treatment is not proof of a causal link with the illness. For example, consider a person with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Because this person lacks insulin to metabolise glucose, the condition is managed with regular insulin injections. However, the lack of insulin is a symptom of the disease, not the cause. Whatever caused the pancreas to cease producing insulin is not known, despite the treatment being effective. Similarly, with schizophrenia, the relationship between taking antipsychotic medications (which are dopamine antagonists), dopamine levels and symptom management is correlational, not causal. Therefore, although antipsychotic medication affects dopamine receptors and hence dopamine levels and can be an effective treatment to manage the symptoms of schizophrenia, this does not provide evidence that elevated dopamine levels cause the disorder.



Psychoanalytic theory


Sigmund Freud developed the first psychological explanation of human behaviour – psychoanalytic theory – in the late 19th century. He placed strong emphasis on the role of unconscious processes (not in the conscious mind of the individual) in determining human behaviour. Central tenets of the theory are that intra-psychic (generally unconscious) forces, developmental factors and family relationships determine human behaviour. According to psychoanalytic theory normal development results when the individual satisfactorily traverses each developmental stage and mental illness is seen as a consequence of fixation at a particular developmental stage or conflict that has not been resolved.



SIGMUND FREUD


Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who, in his clinical practice, saw a number of patients with sensory or neurological problems for which he was unable to identify a physiological cause. In the main these patients were middle-class Viennese women. It was from his work with these patients that Freud hypothesised that the cause of their maladies was psychological. From this assumption he developed a personality theory, which he called psychoanalytic.


According to Freud the mind is composed of three forces:


• The id – the primitive biological force comprising two basic drives: sexual and aggressive. The id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks to satisfy life-sustaining needs such as food, love and creativity, in addition to sexual gratification.

• The ego – the cognitive component of personality that attempts to use realistic means (the reality principle) to achieve the desires of the id.

• The superego – the internalised moral standards of the society in which one lives. It represents the person’s ideal self and can be equated to a conscience.

Freud’s theory proposes that personality development progresses through four stages throughout childhood. At each stage the child’s behaviour is driven by the need to satisfy sexual and aggressive drives via the mouth, anus or genitals. Failure of the child to satisfy these needs at any one of the stages will result in psychological difficulties that are carried into adulthood. For example, unresolved issues at the oral stage can lead to dependency issues in adulthood; problems in the anal stage may lead to the child later developing obsessive-compulsive traits. Freud’s stages of psychosexual development are:


1. oral – from birth to about 18 months, where the primary focus of the id is the mouth

2. anal – from approximately 18 months to three years, where libido shifts from the mouth to the anus and primary gratification is derived from expelling or retaining faeces

3. phallic – from approximately three to six years, where gratification of the id occurs through the genitals

4. latent – Freud proposed that from approximately six to 12 years, the child goes through a latency phase in which sexual urges are dormant

5. genital – once the child passes through puberty, sexual urges re-emerge but now they are directed towards another person, not the self as they were at an earlier stage of development (Alloy et al 2005, Bond & McConkey 2001, Davison et al 2004).


DEFENCE MECHANISMS


An important contribution of psychoanalytic theory to the understanding of behaviour has been the identification of defence mechanisms and the role they play in mediating anxiety. Defence mechanisms were first described by Freud and later elaborated on by his daughter, Anna (Freud 1966). They are unconscious, protective processes whereby anxiety experienced by the ego is reduced. Commonly used defence mechanisms include:


• repression – the primary defence mechanism and an unconscious process whereby unacceptable impulses/feelings/thoughts are barred from consciousness (e.g. memories of sexual abuse in childhood)

• regression – the avoidance of present difficulties by a reversion to an earlier, less mature way of dealing with the situation (e.g. a toilet-trained child who becomes incontinent following the birth of a sibling)

• denial – the blocking of painful information from consciousness (e.g. not accepting that a loss has occurred)

• projection – the denial of one’s own unconscious impulses by attributing them to another person (e.g. when you dislike someone but believe it is the other person who does not like you)

• sublimation – an unconscious process whereby libido is transformed into a more socially acceptable outlet (e.g. creativity, art or sport)

• displacement – the transferring of emotion from the source to a substitute (e.g. a person who is unassertive in an interaction with a supervisor at work and ‘kicks the cat’ on arriving home)

• rationalisation – a rational excuse is used to explain behaviour that may be motivated by an irrational force (e.g. cheating when completing a tax return, with the excuse that ‘everyone does it’)

• intellectualisation/isolation – feelings are cut off from the event in which they occur (e.g. after an unsuccessful job interview the person says, ‘I didn’t really want the job anyway’)

• reaction formation – developing a personality trait that is the opposite of the original unconscious or repressed trait (e.g. avoiding a friend’s partner because you are attracted to that person).


CRITIQUE OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY


Although the notions of unconscious motivations and defence mechanisms are helpful in interpreting behaviours, Freud’s version of psychoanalytic theory has not been without its critics. Fellow psychoanalyst Erik Erikson disagreed with Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages of development and proposed instead a psychosocial theory in which development occurred throughout the lifespan not just through childhood as in Freud’s model (Erikson 1963, Santrock 2007).


The unconscious nature of Freud’s concepts and stages renders them difficult to test and therefore there is little evidence to support Freudian theory. Feminists also object to Freud’s interpretation of the psychological development of women, arguing that there is scant evidence to support the hypothesis that women view their bodies as inferior to men’s because they do not have a penis (Alloy et al 2005).



BOX 1.1 CASE STUDY: HAYLEY


Hayley is a 15-year-old high school student who is a member of the national Olympic swimming team. She currently holds the national title for the 100 and 200 metres breaststroke events. She is an only child and her mother has recently resigned from work to support Hayley’s strenuous training regimen.


Two weeks ago Hayley suffered a seizure and collapsed at training. When she woke up in hospital she was paralysed on her left side. Subsequent investigations identified an inoperable brain tumour. Hayley and her parents were told that the life expectancy for this particular type of tumour is three to six months.


Jake is a physiotherapist who has been assigned Hayley in his caseload. The referral from the neurosurgeon requests that Hayley be assisted to mobilise and taught how to use a walking stick prior to her discharge home. She will attend the hospital daily for radiotherapy but this treatment is considered to be palliative not curative.


Hayley welcomed Jake warmly when she met him and said, ‘Am I pleased to see you? I want to get moving again so that I can return to my swimming training. The Olympic selections are only three months away’. Jake was puzzled by Hayley’s statement because he read in the notes that Hayley has been informed of her diagnosis and prognosis.



CRITICAL THINKING



image Which defence mechanism is Hayley using?

image What purpose might this defence mechanism serve Hayley at the moment?

image How useful is this coping strategy in the longer term?
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Jun 19, 2016 | Posted by in PSYCHOLOGY | Comments Off on Psychology: an introduction

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