Parkinsonism: Successive Clinical Stages
Untreated Parkinson disease may be divided into five stages. Stage 1 is characterized by mild unilateral disease. Tremor may be the only visible sign but other subtle findings, including slowness…
Schematic and Cross Section of Basal Ganglia
A biconvex structure, the subthalamic nuclei (STN) receives glutamatergic inputs from the cerebral cortex, GABA inhibition from the GPe, and provides glutamatergic innervations to the GPe, GPi, SN, and PPN….
Parkinsonism: Early Manifestations
IDIOPATHIC PARKINSON DISEASE Idiopathic Parkinson disease is characterized by the presence of tremor, rigidity, or bradykinesia early in the course of the illness, with postural and/or gait disturbances usually developing…
Basal Ganglia and Related Structures 159
Caudate Nucleus. The caudate nucleus resembles an elongated and curved exclamation mark. Its main part is an expanded head directly continuous with a smaller and attenuated body that merges into…
Ventilatory Patterns and Apnea Test
The areas of the brainstem that modulate ventilation are co-localized to the same structure containing the central pattern generator. The areas that are sensitive to changes in hydrogen ion concentration…
Basal Nuclei (Ganglia)
Abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) should be viewed as clinical signs with many causes. For example, parkinsonism may be the clinical manifestation of a variety of conditions with different or unclear…
Vegetative State and Minimally Conscious State
To date, VS and the MCS have both been defined by clinically observed behavioral responses. For example, VS is characterized by wakefulness in the absence of any awareness of self…
Brain Death
Before starting the assessment for brain death, reversible conditions or conditions that can interfere with the neurologic examination must be excluded. For example, hypothermia, hypotension, and metabolic disturbance that could…
Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Damage
Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy. Hypoxicischemic encephalopathy is the term used to describe such injury after cardiac arrest or severe hypoxia causing global injury, or prolonged hypotension causing arterial border zone injury. Many…
Prognosis in Coma Related to Severe Head Injuries
NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION It is important to carry out careful physical and neurologic examinations. Evaluation of the patient’s spontaneous limb and bulbar movements, pupillary reactions, eye movements, and response to painful…
