Epinephrine (adrenaline), and the closely related norepinephrine (noradrenaline), are the chief neurotransmitters at peripheral sympathetic or adrenergic terminations, whereas acetylcholine is generally associated with parasympathetic, or cholinergic effects. However, in…
The autonomic reflex arc is similar to the somatic reflex arc, although, in the somatic arcs, the interneurons and their connections are entirely within the central nervous system (CNS). In…
The axons of autonomic neurons in the cranial nerve nuclei and sacral spinal segments usually produce effects opposite to those produced by the axons of neurons in the thoracolumbar intermediolateral…
The central autonomic components include regions of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, and brainstem. In the cerebral cortex, autonomic areas include the frontal premotor areas, telencephalic cortex in the hippocampus, insular…
LYME Lyme disease in the United States is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi infection transmitted by the Ixodes tick. In the majority of infected individuals, Lyme disease manifests first with erythema…
ALCOHOL The prevalence of neuropathy in alcohol use is uncertain, but has been estimated to exist in approximately 50% of alcoholics. Incidence of neuropathy in alcoholics correlates with age of…
ARSENIC Arsenic has a ubiquitous distribution in the environment, particularly as an impurity in copper ores. Although it is a means of notorious surreptitious homicide, the presence of excessive levels…
SJÖGREN SYNDROME Sjögren syndrome (SS) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects middle-aged women. The criteria for diagnosis include sicca symptoms (dry eyes, dry mouth), objective evidence of keratoconjunctivitis,…
Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) shares many similarities with GBS but also important differences. For example, the autoimmune attack of CIDP is chronic, not self-limiting as with GBS. Furthermore, CIDP…
