The parabrachial nucleus receives visceral sensory and pain inputs, and organizes patterns of cardiovascular response seen during arousal due to pain, respiratory distress, or gastrointestinal discomfort (increased blood pressure and…
At the same time, a series of monoaminergic cell groups in the upper brainstem provides an ascending pathway that largely bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the cerebral cortex….
Behavioral stress may come from many different sources, but the areas that most frequently show increased activity under stressful conditions include the medial prefrontal cortex (particularly the cingulate gyrus) and…
The actions of leptin and ghrelin appear to involve neurons in the arcuate nucleus, a part of the hypothalamus that is just above the pituitary stalk. These hormones can enter…
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF LYMPHOID TISSUE IN IMMUNE RESPONSE A critical part of fighting off any infection is the activation of an appropriate immune response. During a sickness response, prostaglandin E2…
There are several processes by which invading infectious organisms can set off the sickness response. One is that they can act locally on white blood cells that then produce circulating…
The other major way to increase body temperature is by heat conservation. Particularly in larger mammals, such as adult humans, the body makes sufficient heat from its internal metabolism so…
Because the hypothalamus is very small, injuries often involve multiple systems. Hence, a patient with a pituitary tumor or craniopharyngioma impinging on the hypothalamus may have disorders extending into many…
Fluid and electrolyte balance is maintained by autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral means. The renal blood flow is under autonomic control, as is the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which releases renin, an enzyme…
Each of the limbic areas also sends descending inputs to the hypothalamus. The inputs from the cingulate gyrus mainly originate in the infralimbic and prelimbic regions (around and just beneath…
