Subtypes of depression may be defined by the presence of psychotic features (delusions, hallucinations), catatonia (motor disturbances, such as immobility or agitation, stereotyped movements, mutism), melancholy (weight loss, insomnia, morning…
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is an adjunctive treatment for certain types of intractable epilepsy and treatment-resistant depression. VNS uses an implanted stimulator that sends electric impulses to the left vagus…
The amygdala is connected extensively to the hypothalamus and other limbic structures. It receives input from widespread sensory cortical regions and paralimbic structures (piriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex…
Drugs targeting the Na+ channel reduce the likelihood of a seizure by either increasing the amount of time the channel stays in the inactive state or by altering the shape…
The cellular events that underlie the ability of NRT neurons to shift between an oscillatory and tonic firing mode are the low-threshold (T) Ca2+ spikes that are present in thalamocortical…
Epilepsy is a paroxysmal disorder characterized by abnormal neuronal discharges. Although epilepsy has many causes, the fundamental disorder is secondary to abnormal synchronous discharges of a network of neurons. Epilepsy…
The two most important ions in the transmission of action potentials are Na+ and potassium K+. Voltage-gated Na+ channels have three types of states: deactivated (closed), activated (open), and inactivated…
Genetic and Neurometabolic Causes. There are many genetic and neurometabolic causes that lead to seizures, typically beginning in childhood. Genetic disorders include disorders such as severe myoclonic epilepsy of childhood,…
Convulsive status epilepticus (CSE) is one of the most common medical neurologic emergencies and continues to be associated with significant mortality and morbidity. In people with epilepsy, CSE is often…
An example of an epileptic syndrome with generalized seizures is juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). The seizure types are generalized tonic-clonic, absence, or myoclonic, which often occur upon awakening. The seizures…
