VNS for treatment-resistant depression
History Interest in the effects of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on the central nervous system began in the early 20th century, with Bailey and Bremer demonstrating in 1938 that electrical…
Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Neurosurgical interventions for the treatment of psychiatric illnesses have been used since the dawn of the somatic treatments in neuropsychiatry ( ). The use of surgery in psychiatry existed…
MST for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Magnetic seizure therapy (MST), as the name implies, is a treatment that involves the induction of therapeutic seizures generated through magnetic fields. The impetus for developing this treatment was…
ECT for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the oldest biologic treatment in psychiatry still in use and continues to play a crucial role in the management of treatment-resistant depression (TRD). ECT has…
tDCS for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technique, whereby a subthreshold, continuous electrical current (typically 1–2 mA) is applied to the brain via two or more…
Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Although diverse treatments are currently available for depression, one class of treatments that holds significant promise, especially for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) in the near future, is neuromodulation. This growing…
Opioid agents for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction Almost 70% of depressed individuals do not adequately respond to common antidepressants and need multiple therapeutic trials in order to achieve a full remission. Furthermore, according to the STAR*D…
Inflammation and treatment resistance: Mechanisms and treatment implications
Introduction Increasing data indicate that the immune system in general and inflammation in particular may play a role in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders including depression and anxiety ( )….
Psychedelic agents for treatment-resistant depression
Acknowledgments Effort for authors was provided by The Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research which is funded by the Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation, Tim Ferriss, Matt Mullenweg, Craig Nerenberg,…
Ketamine/esketamine for treatment-resistant depression
Introduction In recent years, ketamine, its individual enantiomers, and related compounds have been a major focus of research and clinical development for the treatment of depression. With the United States…
