Introduction As neuromodulation therapies become a treatment standard for a variety of disorders including medically refractory Parkinson’s disease (PD), essential tremor, dystonia, pain syndromes, epilepsy, psychiatric disorders, and other future…
It is an empiric fact that deep brain stimulation (DBS) directly and proximately (antidromicaly and oligosynapticaly) activates wide regions of the brain at time scales comparable to the immediate clinical…
Neuromodulation is an essential part of functional neurosurgery and an important therapeutic modality for many patients suffering from medically refractory disorders. Deep brain stimulation (DBS), motor cortex stimulation (MCS), vagal…
Introduction One of the greatest advantages of neuromodulation therapies, and in contrast to ablative procedures of the past is that the anatomical and physiological substrate of the therapy may continue…
The goal of cortical stimulation (CS) is to change the excitability or activity of cortical and related subcortical networks involved in pathophysiological processes. Any neurological or psychiatric disorder can be…
Introduction A neuromodulation system may consist of two or more components, including the neurostimulator, a lead which contains the electrodes for stimulation and, in some cases, an extension that bridges…
Introduction History Spinal injections were first used in the mid-19th century to produce anesthesia for surgical procedures. Over the next century, new needles were developed and our anatomical understanding of…
Expectations and outcomes Since the resurgence of neurostimulation technologies in the 1990s, promising advances have been made in this field by altering nervous system function for relief of pain and…
Surgery of any kind carries risk of complications and, to date, there is no surgical intervention that is completely safe. As ever, the goal of the surgeon in this regard…
