The external, tough, fibrous dura mater continues downward as far as the second sacral vertebra, where it ends blindly. It is separated from the wall of the vertebral canal by…

THE MOTOR DIVISION Fibers arise from the motor facial nucleus, located in the reticular formation of the lowest part of the pons. The nucleus is posterior to the superior olive,…

VESTIBULAR NERVE At the fundus of the internal acoustic meatus, the vestibular part of the vestibulocochlear nerve expands to form the vestibular ganglion before dividing into superior and inferior divisions….

The schematic cross section in the lower part of the illustration shows the location of the principal fiber tracts within the spinal white matter. As indicated by the colors, the…

The eighth cranial nerve is vulnerable to fractures involving the petrous part of the temporal bone and by tumors affecting the brainstem or cerebellum. Vertigo may be caused by central…

The descending pathways shown in parts A, B, C, and D have a variety of actions on spinal circuitry, including the modulation of somatosensory input and the production of motor…

The radicular arteries arise from the lateral spinal arteries, which traverse the intervertebral foramina at each vertebral segment. Regardless of their origin, the many small radicular arteries pass medially to…

TASTE PATHWAYS The chemosensitive cells found in the taste buds of the tongue, epiglottis, and larynx are innervated by three groups of sensory neurons. Sensory Neurons. Taste cells synapse with…