A biconvex structure, the subthalamic nuclei (STN) receives glutamatergic inputs from the cerebral cortex, GABA inhibition from the GPe, and provides glutamatergic innervations to the GPe, GPi, SN, and PPN….
IDIOPATHIC PARKINSON DISEASE Idiopathic Parkinson disease is characterized by the presence of tremor, rigidity, or bradykinesia early in the course of the illness, with postural and/or gait disturbances usually developing…
Caudate Nucleus. The caudate nucleus resembles an elongated and curved exclamation mark. Its main part is an expanded head directly continuous with a smaller and attenuated body that merges into…
The areas of the brainstem that modulate ventilation are co-localized to the same structure containing the central pattern generator. The areas that are sensitive to changes in hydrogen ion concentration…
Abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) should be viewed as clinical signs with many causes. For example, parkinsonism may be the clinical manifestation of a variety of conditions with different or unclear…
Before starting the assessment for brain death, reversible conditions or conditions that can interfere with the neurologic examination must be excluded. For example, hypothermia, hypotension, and metabolic disturbance that could…
To date, VS and the MCS have both been defined by clinically observed behavioral responses. For example, VS is characterized by wakefulness in the absence of any awareness of self…
Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy. Hypoxicischemic encephalopathy is the term used to describe such injury after cardiac arrest or severe hypoxia causing global injury, or prolonged hypotension causing arterial border zone injury. Many…
Coma Scales. The Glasgow Coma Scale score (see Section 14, Plate 14-15) for best motor response in either the upper or lower limbs is rated on a scale of 1…
When a hemispheric lesion compresses the brainstem, the patient usually has signs or symptoms of hemisphere dysfunction, such as hemiparesis. Any space-occupying lesion, such as subdural hematoma, infarction, hemorrhage, or…
