Summary of Key Points • Compared to virgin spine operations, reoperations require more extensive exposures. Therefore, the risk of spine instability, neural damage, and infection increases. • Techniques used in…

Summary of Key Points • Cerebrospinal fluid fistulas and pseudomeningoceles are rare complications of spine surgery. • They usually develop shortly after surgery resulting in an increase in postoperative morbidity,…

Summary of Key Points • Postoperative spinal deformity manifests as an inability of the spine to maintain an adequate load-bearing capacity or withstand dynamic forces, which may occur due to…

Summary of Key Points • Spinal orthoses have been used for centuries to augment the structural function of the spine. Advances in orthotic materials, spinal biomechanics, and surgical techniques have…

Summary of Key Points • Arachnoiditis is a nonspecific inflammatory process of the arachnoid layer of the spinal cord or cauda equina. • There are three stages in the progression…

Summary of Key Points • Confounders in clinical investigation are systematic errors that cause a tendency toward erroneous results. The two major forms of bias in retrospective studies are selection…

Summary of Key Points • Back pain is a common complaint seen at least once during the life span in more than two thirds of general population. • Failed back…

Summary of Key Points • Soft tissue and vascular complications related to spine surgery are usually predictable and vary depending on the region being operated on. • Cervical spine surgery–related…

Summary of Key Points • Spine surgery is highly dependent on intraoperative imaging for both localization and assessment purposes. • Plain film radiography and fluoroscopy are the most common imaging…

Summary of Key Points • Pseudarthrosis of the spine is failure of bony fusion; symptoms may include pain, instability, or loss of correction/fixation. • The diagnosis of pseudarthrosis is challenging…