Autonomic Nerves in Neck
The cervicothoracic (stellate) ganglion is formed by the fusion of the seventh and eighth cervical ganglia with the first and/or second thoracic ganglia. It is an irregularly fusiform structure with…
Autonomic Reflex Pathways
The autonomic reflex arc is similar to the somatic reflex arc, although, in the somatic arcs, the interneurons and their connections are entirely within the central nervous system (CNS). In…
Leprosy and Other Infections Sometimes Causing Peripheral Neuropathies
LYME Lyme disease in the United States is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi infection transmitted by the Ixodes tick. In the majority of infected individuals, Lyme disease manifests first with erythema…
General Topography of Autonomic Nervous System
The central autonomic components include regions of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, and brainstem. In the cerebral cortex, autonomic areas include the frontal premotor areas, telencephalic cortex in the hippocampus, insular…
General Topography of Autonomic Nervous System (Continued)
The axons of autonomic neurons in the cranial nerve nuclei and sacral spinal segments usually produce effects opposite to those produced by the axons of neurons in the thoracolumbar intermediolateral…
Peripheral Neuropathy Cause by Heavy Metal Poisoning
ARSENIC Arsenic has a ubiquitous distribution in the environment, particularly as an impurity in copper ores. Although it is a means of notorious surreptitious homicide, the presence of excessive levels…
Metabolic, Toxic, and Nutritional Peripheral Neuropathies
ALCOHOL The prevalence of neuropathy in alcohol use is uncertain, but has been estimated to exist in approximately 50% of alcoholics. Incidence of neuropathy in alcoholics correlates with age of…
Immunopathogenesis of Guillain-Barré Syndrome
Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) shares many similarities with GBS but also important differences. For example, the autoimmune attack of CIDP is chronic, not self-limiting as with GBS. Furthermore, CIDP…
Vasculitic Neuropathy and Other Connective Tissue Disorders Associated with Neuropathy: Sjögren Syndrome
SJÖGREN SYNDROME Sjögren syndrome (SS) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects middle-aged women. The criteria for diagnosis include sicca symptoms (dry eyes, dry mouth), objective evidence of keratoconjunctivitis,…
Vasculitic Neuropathy and Other Connective Tissue Disorders Associated with Neuropathy: Fibrinoid Necrosis
Vasculitic neuropathies usually manifest with asymmetric nerve involvement, in a stepwise fashion often described as mononeuritis multiplex. They are often painful, in addition to clinically manifesting with signs of focal…
