Effects of Pituitary Mass Lesions on the Visual Apparatus
A variety of mass lesions may arise within the sella. In addition to benign pituitary adenomas, which account for approximately 90% of mass lesions in surgical series, there are a…
Divisions of the Pituitary Gland and Its Relationships to the Hypothalamus
The gland is composed of the adenohypophysis and the neurohypophysis, which are embryologically, anatomically, and functionally distinct. The former derives from the Rathke’s pouch, an ectodermal outgrowth of the primordial…
Sleep-Disordered Breathing
Clinical Presentation. Pronounced snoring, a classic indicator for possible sleep apnea is related to vibration of upper airway tissue. Apnea occurs when the upper airway obstruction becomes complete. There is…
Narcolepsy: A Hypothalamic Sleep Disorder
The cause of narcolepsy was quite mysterious until a new neurotransmitter, orexin (also called hypocretin) was discovered in 1998. The orexin neurons are found in the lateral hypothalamic area. They…
Parasomnias
PERIODIC LIMB MOVEMENTS OF SLEEP (PLMS) Typically, the patient experiences repeated very brief episodic leg movements ranging from simple great toe dorsiflexion to violent flexion of the entire lower extremity….
Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep
At the same time, a series of monoaminergic cell groups in the upper brainstem provides an ascending pathway that largely bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the cerebral cortex….
Hypothalamic Regulation of Cardiovascular Function
The parabrachial nucleus receives visceral sensory and pain inputs, and organizes patterns of cardiovascular response seen during arousal due to pain, respiratory distress, or gastrointestinal discomfort (increased blood pressure and…
Regulation of Food Intake, Body Weight, and Metabolism
The actions of leptin and ghrelin appear to involve neurons in the arcuate nucleus, a part of the hypothalamus that is just above the pituitary stalk. These hormones can enter…
Stress Response
Behavioral stress may come from many different sources, but the areas that most frequently show increased activity under stressful conditions include the medial prefrontal cortex (particularly the cingulate gyrus) and…
Fever: Hypothalamic Responses During Inflammation Modulate Immune Response
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF LYMPHOID TISSUE IN IMMUNE RESPONSE A critical part of fighting off any infection is the activation of an appropriate immune response. During a sickness response, prostaglandin E2…
