Introduction One of the greatest advantages of neuromodulation therapies, and in contrast to ablative procedures of the past is that the anatomical and physiological substrate of the therapy may continue…

The goal of cortical stimulation (CS) is to change the excitability or activity of cortical and related subcortical networks involved in pathophysiological processes. Any neurological or psychiatric disorder can be…

Overview Over the past several decades the field of neuromodulation has seen a rapid growth. This growth has been possible in part by the many advances made in technology; in…

Introduction A neuromodulation system may consist of two or more components, including the neurostimulator, a lead which contains the electrodes for stimulation and, in some cases, an extension that bridges…

Introduction History Spinal injections were first used in the mid-19th century to produce anesthesia for surgical procedures. Over the next century, new needles were developed and our anatomical understanding of…

Expectations and outcomes Since the resurgence of neurostimulation technologies in the 1990s, promising advances have been made in this field by altering nervous system function for relief of pain and…

Surgery of any kind carries risk of complications and, to date, there is no surgical intervention that is completely safe. As ever, the goal of the surgeon in this regard…

Introduction We as neuromodulators have a unique advantage. We are able to apply a technology that is both safe and testable. There are not many procedures that medicine offers that…

Introduction Neuromodulation means many things to many people – but essential to any point of view is that the term implies some type of intervention that interfaces on some level…

Introduction Rather than write a ‘this is how I do it’ chapter, it seems more helpful to get under the skin of surgical techniques used specifically in neuromodulation, so to…